Why Uranium?

• High demand as an energy source
• Significant Price increase
• Production shortfalls
• Diminished supply
• Growing cost of alternative fuels used to produce electricity
• More than 140 new reactors to be built over the next 10 years
• Uranium is more than 10,000 times the energy output than oil (megajoule/kg)

What is Uranium?

• Discovered in 1789, Uranium is one of the most abundant elements found within the earth's crust.

• It is more abundant than gold, silver or mercury, about the same as tin and slightly less abundant than cobalt, lead or molybdenum.

• Uranium is a silvery white very dense metal (65% more dense than lead), with the potential to generate incredible amounts of energy.

• Radioactive metallic element of high specific gravity.

• Uranium averages about two parts per million of the earth's crust.

• Uranium is found as an oxide, uraninite, or mixed oxide, pitchblende or complex salt such as brannerite (oxide of uranium, rare earths, iron and titanium), coffinite (uranium silicate) and carnotite (hydrated potassium uranyl vanadate).

• Chemical symbol for uranium is "U"

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Where is Uranium Found?

• Uranium, known as the heaviest naturally occurring element, can be found in soil and rock, in rivers and oceans, in a variety of different geological environments.

• Concentrated uranium ores are commonly found in hard rock or sandstone and vary according to the substances mixed with and where it was originally found.

• Uranium deposits can be found all over the world. Larger areas include Australia and Canada.

• High-grade deposits are only found in Canada.

• Kazakhstan, Niger, Russia and Namibia follow close behind in production, and combined with Canada and Australia, they account for about 84% of production from mines.

• McArthur River in Canada (Cameco), Ranger in Australia (ERA) and Olympic Dam in Australia (BHP-Billiton) are the three largest operations in the world by annual uranium production.

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Mining Uranium

Uranium is extracted from the ground using a variety of different mining techniques, depending on the depth of the mineralization and grade.

• Open Pit

When found close to the surface, generally less than 100 metres deep, this method is most common. It begins by removing overburden soil and waste rock on top of the ore body to expose the hard rock, a pit is then excavated to access the ore. The pits walls are mined in a series of benches to prevent them from collapsing. To mine each bench, holes are drilled into the rock and loaded with explosives, which are detonated to break up the rock.

• Deeper deposits

Located more than 100 metres below the surface, underground mining methods are required. Entry into the ground in accessed by digging vertical shafts to the depth of the ore body, tunnels are then cut around the deposit. Horizontal tunnels (drifts) offer access directly to the ore and provide ventilation pathways. The mines underground are ventilated, but in the uranium mines, extra care is taken with ventilation to minimize the amount of radiation exposure and dust inhalation.

• In Situ Leaching

In some cases when the ores are of lower-grade, the uranium is mined by in situ leaching; while still underground the process dissolves the uranium and then transports a uranium-bearing solution to the surface that extracts the dissolved uranium. With this process there is partial disturbance to the surfaces environment. Leaching is another word for dissolving and in situ means in the original place or position.

Following the mining, the ore is crushed and ground, and the oxide ore is treated with sulphuric acid to produce uranium oxide or yellowcake. Yellowcake is uranium concentrate. It takes its name from the color and texture of the concentrates produced by early mining operations, despite the fact that modern mills using higher calcining temperatures produce "yellowcake" that is dull green to almost black. Yellowcake typically contains 70% to 90% uranium oxide (U3O8) by weight. (Other uranium oxides, such as UO2 and UO3, exist; the most stable oxide, U3O8, is actually considered to be a 2:3 molar mixture of these).

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Uranium Grades

• Uranium concentrations vary from substance to substance and place to place.
  1. Uranium in phosphate rock, which is used to produce fertilizer, can range as high as 400 ppm (parts per million).
  2. Some coal deposits contain uranium concentration levels as high as 1000 ppm.
  3. Concentrations in excess of greater than 750 ppm are usually considered ore, or rock economical to mine.
• Ore-grade uranium ranges from .01% (1,000 ppm) up to several tens of percents found in high-grade deposits.
  1. High-grade ore-body -- 20% U 200,000 ppm U
  2. Low-grade orebody -- 0.01% U 1,000 ppm U
  3. Granite 4 ppm U
  4. Sedimentary rock 2 ppm U
  5. Average in Earth's continental crust 2.8 ppm U
  6. Seawater 0.03 ppm U

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Uranium Supply and Demand

• Demand is projected to increase at and annual rate of 2.8% to 2010 and double by 2020.

• Significant commercial use for uranium is to fuel nuclear power plants for the generation of electricity.

• At this time in the world, there are 441 operable commercial nuclear power plants generating capacity of 367,684 megawatts requiring 178 million pounds of U3O8 per year. These plants are supplying approximately 16% of the world's power requirements.

• Construction of 140 new reactors are underway or in the planning stages for completion within the next 10 years.

• Approximately 180 million pounds (81,600 tonnes) for all sources is the current demand for uranium fuels. This number will increase to more than 200 million pounds (90,700 tonnes) U3O8 by 2025. Around 100 million pounds (45,400 tonnes) U3O8, is produced from world mining at this present time (remaining demand is currently met from "secondary" sources) but to meet expected demand this number must increase by 60 per cent by the year 2018.

• Demand for uranium is linked to the level of electricity generated by nuclear power plants.

• The cost of producing conventional electricity is increasing due to escalating oil, coal and natural gas prices. In addition, global warming concerns are also increasing international interest in nuclear power and spurring new demand for uranium.

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Uranium and Energy

• Nuclear reactors now generate more than 16% of the world's electricity.

• The uranium market depends a great deal on world demand for nuclear generated electricity. The selling price of uranium generally fluctuates according to supply and demand.

• The element that is found in nature is used as a nuclear fuel; it is a source of energy.

• Protecting the safety of the environment, uranium fuel is emissions-free and comparing to other fuels, it only requires a small quantity to generate an equivalent amount of electricity, something society depends on.

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Actinide:

an element with atomic number of 89 (actinium) or above.

Activation product:

A radioactive isotope of an element (eg in the steel of a reactor core) which has been created by neutron bombardment.

ALARA:

As Low As Reasonably Achievable, economic and social factors being taken into account. This is the optimisation principle of radiation protection.

Alpha particle:

A positively-charged particle from the nucleus of an atom, emitted during radioactive decay. Alpha particles are helium nuclei, with 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

Atom:

A particle of matter which cannot be broken up by chemical means. Atoms have a nucleus consisting of positively-charged protons and uncharged neutrons of the same mass. The positive charges on the protons are balanced by a number of negatively-charged electrons in motion around the nucleus.

Background radiation:

The naturally-occurring ionising radiation which every person is exposed to, arising from the earth's crust (including radon) and from cosmic radiation.

Base load:

That part of electricity demand which is continuous, and does not vary over a 24-hour period. Approximately equivalent to the minimum daily load.

Becquerel:

The SI unit of intrinsic radioactivity in a material. One Bq measures one disintegration per second and is thus the activity of a quantity of radioactive material which averages one decay per second. (In practice, GBq or TBq are the common units.)

Beta particle:

A particle emitted from an atom during radioactive decay. Beta particles may be either electrons (with negative charge) or positrons.

Biological shield:

A mass of absorbing material (eg thick concrete walls) placed around a reactor or radioactive material to reduce the radiation (especially neutrons and gamma rays respectively) to a level safe for humans.

Boiling water reactor (BWR):

A common type of light water reactor (LWR), where water is allowed to boil in the core thus generating steam directly in the reactor vessel. (cf PWR)

Breed:

To form fissile nuclei, usually as a result of neutron capture, possibly followed by radioactive decay.

Breeder reactor:

see Fast Breeder Reactor and Fast Neutron Reactor.

Burnable poison:

A neutron absorber included in the fuel which progressively disappears and compensates for the loss of reactivity as the fuel is consumed. Gadolinium is commonly used.

Burnup:

Measure of thermal energy released by nuclear fuel relative to its mass, typically Gigawatt days per tonne (GWd/tU).

Calandria:

(in a CANDU reactor) a cylindrical reactor vessel which contains the heavy water moderator. It is penetrated from end to end by hundreds of calandria tubes which accommodate the pressure tubes containing the fuel and coolant.

CANDU:

Canadian deuterium uranium reactor, moderated and (usually) cooled by heavy water.

Chain reaction:

A reaction that stimulates its own repetition, in particular where the neutrons originating from nuclear fission cause an ongoing series of fission reactions.

Cladding:

The metal tubes containing oxide fuel pellets in a reactor core.

Concentrate:

See Uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8).

Control rods:

Devices to absorb neutrons so that the chain reaction in a reactor core may be slowed or stopped by inserting them further, or accelerated by withdrawing them.

Conversion:

Chemical process turning U3O8 into UF6 preparatory to enrichment.

Coolant:

The liquid or gas used to transfer heat from the reactor core to the steam generators or directly to the turbines.

Core:

The central part of a nuclear reactor containing the fuel elements and any moderator.

Critical mass:

The smallest mass of fissile material that will support a self-sustaining chain reaction under specified conditions.

Criticality:

Condition of being able to sustain a nuclear chain reaction.

Decay:

Disintegration of atomic nuclei resulting in the emission of alpha or beta particles (usually with gamma radiation). Also the exponential decrease in radioactivity of a material as nuclear disintegrations take place and more stable nuclei are formed.

Decommissioning:

Removal of a facility (eg reactor) from service, also the subsequent actions of safe storage, dismantling and making the site available for unrestricted use.

Depleted uranium:

Uranium having less than the natural 0.7% U-235. As a by-product of enrichment in the fuel cycle it generally has 0.25-0.30% U-235, the rest being U-238. Can be blended with highly-enriched uranium (eg from weapons) to make reactor fuel.

Deuterium:

"Heavy hydrogen", a stable isotope having one proton and one neutron in the nucleus. It occurs in nature as 1 atom to 6500 atoms of normal hydrogen, (Hydrogen atoms contain one proton and no neutrons).

Dose:

The energy absorbed by tissue from ionising radiation. One gray is one joule per kg, but this is adjusted for the effect of different kinds of radiation, and thus the sievert is the unit of dose equivalent used in setting exposure standards.

Element:

A chemical substance that cannot be divided into simple substances by chemical means; atomic species with same number of protons.

Enriched uranium:

Uranium in which the proportion of U-235 (to U-238) has been increased above the natural 0.7%. Reactor-grade uranium is usually enriched to about 3.5% U-235, weapons-grade uranium is more than 90% U-235.

Enrichment:

Physical process of increasing the proportion of U-235 to U-238. See also SWU

Fast breeder reactor (FBR):

A fast neutron reactor (qv) configured to produce more fissile material than it consumes, using fertile material such as depleted uranium in a blanket around the core.

Fast neutron reactor:

A reactor with little or no moderator and hence utilising fast neutrons. It normally burns plutonium while producing fissile isotopes in fertile material such as depleted uranium (or thorium).

Fertile (of an isotope):

Capable of becoming fissile, by capturing neutrons, possibly followed by radioactive decay; eg U-238, Pu-240.

Fissile (of an isotope):

Capable of capturing a slow (thermal) neutron and undergoing nuclear fission, e.g. U-235, U-233, Pu-239.

Fission products:

Daughter nuclei resulting either from the fission of heavy elements such as uranium, or the radioactive decay of those primary daughters. Usually highly radioactive.

Fission:

The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two, accompanied by the release of a relatively large amount of energy and usually one or more neutrons. It may be spontaneous but usually is due to a nucleus absorbing a neutron and thus becoming unstable.

Fissionable (of an isotope):

Capable of undergoing fission:

If fissile, by slow neutrons; if fertile, by fast neutrons.

Fossil fuel:

A fuel based on carbon presumed to be originally from living matter, eg coal, oil, gas. Burned with oxygen to yield energy.

Fuel assembly:

Structured collection of fuel rods or elements, the unit of fuel in a reactor.

Fuel fabrication:

Making reactor fuel assemblies, usually from sintered UO2 pellets which are inserted into zircalloy tubes, comprising the fuel rods or elements.

Gamma rays:

High energy electro-magnetic radiation from the atomic nucleus, virtually identical to X-rays.

Genetic mutation:

Sudden change in the chromosomal DNA of an individual gene. It may produce inherited changes in descendants. Mutation in some organisms can be made more frequent by irradiation (though this has never been demonstrated in humans).

Giga:

One billion units (eg gigawatt 109 watts or million kW).

Graphite:

Crystalline carbon used in very pure form as a moderator, principally in gas-cooled reactors, but also in Soviet-designed RBMK reactors.

Gray:

The SI unit of absorbed radiation dose, one joule per kilogram of tissue.

Greenhouse gases:

Radiative gases in the earth's atmosphere which absorb long-wave heat radiation from the earth's surface and re-radiate it, thereby warming the earth. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are the main ones.

Half-life:

The period required for half of the atoms of a particular radioactive isotope to decay and become an isotope of another element.

Heavy water reactor (HWR):

A reactor which uses heavy water as its moderator, eg Canadian CANDU (pressurised HWR or PHWR).

Heavy water:

Water containing an elevated concentration of molecules with deuterium ("heavy hydrogen") atoms.

High-level wastes:

Extremely radioactive fission products and transuranic elements (usually other than plutonium) in spent nuclear fuel. They may be separated by reprocessing the spent fuel, or the spent fuel containing them may be regarded as high-level waste.

Highly (or High)-enriched uranium (HEU):

Uranium enriched to at least 20% U-235. (That in weapons is about 90% U-235.)

In situ leaching (ISL):

The recovery by chemical leaching of minerals from porous orebodies without physical excavation. Also known as solution mining.

Ion:

An atom that is electrically-charged because of loss or gain of electrons.

Ionising radiation:

Radiation (including alpha particles) capable of breaking chemical bonds, thus causing ionisation of the matter through which it passes and damage to living tissue.

Irradiate:

Subject material to ionising radiation. Irradiated reactor fuel and components have been subject to neutron irradiation and hence become radioactive themselves.

Isotope:

An atomic form of an element having a particular number of neutrons. Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons and hence different atomic mass, eg. U-235, U-238. Some isotopes are unstable and decay (qv) to form isotopes of other elements.

Light water reactor (LWR):

A common nuclear reactor cooled and usually moderated by ordinary water.

Light water:

Ordinary water (H20) as distinct from heavy water

Low-enriched uranium:

Uranium enriched to less than 20% U-235. (That in power reactors is usually 3.5 - 5.0% U-235.)

Megawatt (MW):

A unit of power, = 106 watts. MWe refers to electric output from a generator, MWt to thermal output from a reactor or heat source (eg the gross heat output of a reactor itself, typically three times the MWe figure).

Metal fuels:

Natural uranium metal as used in a gas-cooled reactor.

Micro:

one millionth of a unit (eg microsievert is 10-6 Sv).

Milling:

Process by which minerals are extracted from ore, usually at the mine site.

Mixed oxide fuel (MOX):

Reactor fuel which consists of both uranium and plutonium oxides, usually about 5% Pu, which is the main fissile component.

Moderator:

A material such as light or heavy water or graphite used in a reactor to slow down fast neutrons by collision with lighter nuclei so as to expedite further fission.

Natural uranium:

Uranium with an isotopic composition as found in nature, containing 99.3% U-238, 0.7% U-235 and a trace of U-234. Can be used as fuel in heavy water-moderated reactors.

Neutron:

An uncharged elementary particle found in the nucleus of every atom except hydrogen. Solitary mobile neutrons travelling at various speeds originate from fission reactions. Slow (thermal) neutrons can in turn readily cause fission in nuclei of "fissile" isotopes, e.g. U-235, Pu-239, U-233; and fast neutrons can cause fission in nuclei of "fertile" isotopes such as U-238, Pu-239. Sometimes atomic nuclei simply capture neutrons.

Nuclear reactor:

A device in which a nuclear fission chain reaction occurs under controlled conditions so that the heat yield can be harnessed or the neutron beams utilised. All commercial reactors are thermal reactors, using a moderator to slow down the neutrons.

Oxide fuels:

Enriched or natural uranium in the form of the oxide UO2, used in many types of reactor.

Plutonium:

A transuranic element, formed in a nuclear reactor by neutron capture. It has several isotopes, some of which are fissile and some of which undergo spontaneous fission, releasing neutrons. Weapons-grade plutonium is produced in special reactors to give >90% Pu-239, reactor-grade plutonium contains about 30% non-fissile isotopes. About one third of the energy in a light water reactor comes from the fission of Pu-239, and this is the main isotope of value recovered from reprocessing spent fuel.

Pressurised water reactor (PWR):

The most common type of light water reactor (LWR), it uses water at very high pressure in a primary circuit and steam is formed in a secondary circuit.

Radiation:

The emission and propagation of energy by means of electromagnetic waves or particles. (cf ionising radiation)

Radioactivity:

The spontaneous decay of an unstable atomic nucleus, giving rise to the emission of radiation.

Radionuclide:

A radioactive isotope of an element.

Radiotoxicity:

The adverse health effect of a radionuclide due to its radioactivity.

Radium:

A radioactive decay product of uranium often found in uranium ore. It has several radioactive isotopes. Radium-226 decays to radon-222.

Radon (Rn):

A heavy radioactive gas given off by rocks containing radium (or thorium). Rn-222 is the main isotope.

Radon daughters:

Short-lived decay products of radon-222 (Po-218, Pb-214, Bi-214, Po-214).

Reactor pressure vessel:

The main steel vessel containing the reactor fuel, moderator and coolant under pressure.

Repository:

A permanent disposal place for radioactive wastes.

Reprocessing:

Chemical treatment of spent reactor fuel to separate uranium and plutonium from the small quantity of fission product waste products and transuranic elements, leaving a much reduced quantity of high-level waste. (cf Waste, HLW).

Separative Work Unit (SWU):

This is a complex unit which is a function of the amount of uranium processed and the degree to which it is enriched, ie the extent of increase in the concentration of the U-235 isotope relative to the remainder. The unit is strictly:

Kilogram Separative Work Unit, and it measures the quantity of separative work (indicative of energy used in enrichment) when feed and product quantities are expressed in kilograms.

Eg, to produce one kilogram of uranium enriched to 3.5% U-235 requires 4.3 SWU if the plant is operated at a tails assay 0.30%, or 4.8 SWU if the tails assay is 0.25% (thereby requiring only 7.0 kg instead of 7.8 kg of natural U feed).

About 100-120,000 SWU is required to enrich the annual fuel loading for a typical 1000 MWe light water reactor. Enrichment costs are related to electrical energy used. The gaseous diffusion process consumes some 2400 kWh per SWU, while gas centrifuge plants require only about 60 kWh/SWU.

Sievert (Sv):

Unit indicating the biological damage caused by radiation. One Joule of beta or gamma radiation absorbed per kilogram of tissue has 1 Sv of biological effect; 1 J/kg of alpha radiation has 20 Sv effect and 1 J/kg of neutrons has 10 Sv effect.

Spent fuel:

Fuel assemblies removed from a reactor after several years use.

Stable:

Incapable of spontaneous radioactive decay.

Tailings:

Ground rock remaining after particular ore minerals (e.g. uranium oxides) are extracted.

Tails:

Depleted uranium (cf. enriched uranium), with about 0.3% U-235.

Thermal reactor:

A reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained primarily by slow neutrons, and hence requiring a moderator (as distinct from Fast Neutron Reactor).

Transmutation:

Changing atoms of one element into those of another by neutron bombardment, causing neutron capture.

Transuranic element:

A very heavy element formed artificially by neutron capture and possibly subsequent beta decay(s). Has a higher atomic number than uranium (92). All are radioactive. Neptunium, plutonium, americium and curium are the best-known.

Uranium (U):

A mildly radioactive element with two isotopes which are fissile (U-235 and U-233) and two which are fertile (U-238 and U-234). Uranium is the basic fuel of nuclear energy.

Uranium hexafluoride (UF6):

A compound of uranium which is a gas above 56oC and is thus a suitable form in which to enrich the uranium.

Uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8):

The mixture of uranium oxides produced after milling uranium ore from a mine. Sometimes loosely called yellowcake. It is khaki in colour and is usually represented by the empirical formula U3O8. Uranium is sold in this form.

Vitrification:

The incorporation of high-level wastes into borosilicate glass, to make up about 14% of it by mass. It is designed to immobilise radionuclides in an insoluble matrix ready for disposal.

Waste:

High-level waste (HLW) is highly radioactive material arising from nuclear fission. It can be recovered from reprocessing spent fuel, though some countries regard spent fuel itself as HLW. It requires very careful handling, storage and disposal. Low-level waste (LLW)is mildly radioactive material usually disposed of by incineration and burial.

Yellowcake:

Ammonium diuranate, the penultimate uranium compound in U3O8 production, but the form in which mine product was sold until about 1970. See also Uranium oxide concentrate.

Zircaloy:

Zirconium alloy used as a tube to contain uranium oxide fuel pellets in a reactor fuel assembly.

Source: World Nuclear Association

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Uranium History by Decade

1895 - 1904
1895		X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen.
1896		In Paris, France, Henri Becquerel discovered uranium.
1898		Marie and Pierre Curie discovered and named elements radium and polonium.
1903		The radiation from radium was used to treat cancerous tumors.
1904		The nature of radioactivity and the theory of radioactive decay was published in a paper by Ernest Rutherford.
1910 - 1920
1910		Cosmic radiation first identified by Hess and Kohlhoerster
1911		Discovery by Rutherford that the atom consisted of a small, dense nucleus. Positively charged particles in the nucleus were named protons. Niels Bohr proposed theory that electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom.
1913		The modern x-ray tube was developed by William Coolidge in the United States.
1915		The first recommendations on safe use of x-rays were issued by the Roentgen Society.
1920 - 1929
1928		The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) was established.
1930 - 1939
1930		Pitchblende was discovered at Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories
1932		James Chadwick discovered the existence of neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
1936		Uranium ore was discovered in a mine on the north shore of Lake Athabasca at Goldfields, Saskatchewan.
1937		Radioisotopes were used for therapy for the first time in the United States.
1939		In Germany, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner discovered that uranium could release energy by nuclear fission. The threat of war caused the work of atomic scientists to be covered-up and classified as military secrets.
1940 - 1949
1942		Nuclear research was conducted in Canada by British scientists. The first controlled nuclear chain reactor was produced in the United States by a team led by Enrico Fermi. No public announcement was made because of wartime restrictions.
1943		In order to gain control of all sources of uranium in their respective countries, the governments of Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States banned all private exploration for, and development of, radioactive materials. The federal government established a Crown corporation, Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited, to oversee Canadian uranium interests. This company expropriated the uranium mine at Port Radium (Northwest Territories) and was given a monopoly in all uranium prospecting and developing activities.
1944		Chalk River, Ontario, was established as the first national research centre in Canada.
1945		A second discovery if uranium ore was made at Goldfields, Saskatchewan. Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited staked its first claim in the Lake Athabasca area in northern Saskatchewan. The first operational nuclear reactor outside the United Sates was started up at Chalk River. The Manhattan Project, research into the development of the atomic bomb being done in the United States, produced the first atomic explosion in New Mexico. Atomic bombs were dropped by the United States on Hiroshima on August 6th and Nagasaki on August 9th, demonstrating the power contained in the uranium atom. This ended World War II and started the nuclear arms race.
1946		The Atomic Energy Control Act was passed by the federal government and the Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB) was created to ensure that nuclear energy is used a s safely as possible.
1948		The government agreed to purchase all uranium through Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited. The federal government lifted the ban on private exploration for radioactive minerals and incentives were offered to encourage prospectors to search for uranium. The Saskatchewan government set up prospectors' training schools to encourage prospecting for uranium.
1949		A uranium mine was developed in the Beaverlodge area by Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited. The U.S.S.R. conducted their first atomic tests.
1950 - 1959
1950		The onset of the Korean War maintained the demand for uranium for use as weapon material.
1951		The first cancer treatment units were developed in Canada and installed at the University Hospital, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan and Victoria Hospital, London, Ontario. In the United States, the first electricity was generated from the fission of uranium atoms. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL), a Crown corporation, was established to conduct research and development into peaceful uses of nuclear technology and to sell, supply and service CANDU nuclear reactors.
1952		The town of Uranium City was established in the area of Beaverlodge. Buildings form Goldfields were moved to the site. An operator's error caused radioactive particles to spread throughout the nuclear reactor at Chalk River. Massive clean-up was required.
1953		The mine and mill at Beaverlodge went into production.
1954		The hydrogen bomb was developed in the United States, quickly followed by similar developments in the U.S.S.R.
1955		Gunnar Mines Limited, a private uranium mining company, began production in the area of Beaverlodge.
1956		The first nuclear energy power plant opened in England.
1957		Lorado Uranium Mines Limited, a private company, began production in the area of Beaverlodge. Numerous small mines operated in the Beaverlodge area, using Eldorado and Lorado milling facilities. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was created to establish and administer international safeguards for the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
1958		Contracts with the United States to purchase Canadian uranium were not renewed.
1959		A second nuclear development centre was established at Whiteshell in Manitoba.
1960 - 1969
1960		Lorado Uranium Mines Limited closed. The Canadian government allowed radiation to be used for inhibiting the sprouting of potatoes.
1962		Canada generated electricity for the first time using nuclear energy.
1964		Gunnar Mines Limited closed due to depletion of ore body. Eldorado was the only uranium production company in Saskatchewan. Interest in nuclear power plants began. Electricity derived from nuclear reactors was proven competitive with electricity from conventional thermal generators. The federal government developed the policy of exporting Canadian uranium only to those countries using uranium for peaceful purposes. A ban on atmospheric testing signed in 1958 by the United State and the U.S.S.R. was enforced.
1967		Government incentives were offered to exploration companies by the Saskatchewan government.
1968		Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited changed its name to Eldorado Nuclear Limited. The Treaty in the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was signed. A section of this treaty prohibited the sale of Canadian uranium for use in weaponry. A rich ore discovery was made at Rabbit Lake in northern Saskatchewan.
1969		A "uranium rush" began in northern Saskatchewan because of the Rabbit Lake discovery and because forecasts of an increased demand for uranium. A high grade uranium deposit was discovered near Cluff Lake in northern Saskatchewan. The high costs of nuclear power plants and environmental concerns postponed or cancelled the development of these plants.
1970 - 1979
1970		The federal government established a foreign ownership policy which would limit foreign ownership of uranium producing companies to 33% and single investors to 10%, with some modifications.
1972		The rush to find uranium ore slowed.
1973		The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) tripled the price of its crude oil. The result was loss of a cheap, abundant energy source. More of the industrialized world turned to nuclear power to generate its electricity.
1974		The Saskatchewan government formed the Saskatchewan Mining Development Corporation as a Crown corporation to explore for and mine uranium and all minerals other than potash and sodium sulphate in Saskatchewan. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission once again allowed Canadian uranium to enter the U.S. market.
1975		A uranium ore deposit was discovered near Key Lake, about 250 kilometers north of La Ronge. Uranium ore production began at Rabbit Lake. India exploded a device using Canadian technology and United States uranium. Canada stopped all nuclear trade with India. The Canadian government realized that the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was not sufficient and that it was necessary to take action to impose further conditions (that is, bi-lateral agreements) on the countries importing Canadian uranium.
1977		The Cluff Lake Board of Inquiry was appointed to conduct a public inquiry into the probable environmental, health, safety, social and economic effects of the expansion of the uranium industry in Saskatchewan.
1979		A major nuclear accident occurred in a nuclear reactor at Three Mile Island in the United States. The Key Lake Board of Inquiry was appointed by the provincial government to make specific recommendations about the Key Lake project. The hearings were boycotted by anti-uranium groups.
1980 - 1989
1980		Uranium production began at Cluff Lake.
1982		Eldorado closed its mine near Uranium City and began to decommission the site. Uranium ore production began at Key Lake in northern Saskatchewan. Eldorado Nuclear Limited took over ownership of the mine and mill complex at Rabbit Lake.
1983		High grade ore deposits at a depth of 400 meters were discovered at Cigar Lake.
1984		People living near the community of Wollaston Lake blockaded the road leading to the Rabbit Lake mine sites.
1986		A major nuclear accident occurred at Chernobyl in the U.S.S.R.
1988		Shaft sinking began at Cigar Lake and Midwest Lake. Eldorado Nuclear Limited and the Saskatchewan Mining Corporation merged to form one company; the Cameco Corporation. Approval was given to proceed with a test mine at Cigar Lake. McArthur River (world's richest deposit discovered)
1989		A Saskatchewan uranium producing company was charged in the court system by the federal and provincial governments in connection with a spill of radioactive water at the Rabbit Lake mine.
1990 - present
1990		The price of uranium on world markets was at a low. 433 nuclear reactors produced electricity in 26 countries, providing 17% of the world's electricity.
1991		Cameco Corporation made its first offering of shares to the public. The company is a major shareholder and operator of both the Key Lake and Rabbit Lake mines and a major shareholder in the Cigar Lake Mining Corporation. The company developed the McArthur River Deposit.
1998		Cameco began mining at McArthur River, the world's largest high-grade uranium mine.
2001		Cameco announced that reserves at McArthur River increased by more than 50%. The mine produces 18 million pounds U3O8 annually
2005		Cigar Lake mine will begin production with proven and probable reserves of more than 232 million pounds U3O8 and a production life of 40 years. Total reserves of Uranium in the Province are estimated at 779 million pounds U3O8. . At 2002 prices of about $10.00 US per pound this amounts to about $11.8 billion in Canadian dollars.

Source: Saskatchewan Interactive